Open access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

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Monday, 22 March 2021

A Case-Study of the Physico-Chemical Parameters of the Public Water Supply in the University of Port Harcourt

A Case-Study of the Physico-Chemical Parameters of the Public Water Supply in the University of Port Harcourt by Johnson Ajinwo OR in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Abstract

Water –borne diseases is on the rise currently in the third world countries as a result of lack of routine water analysis checks to ensure that the desired quality of drinking water is upheld. In the light of the above, this research aimed at determining the physico-chemical properties and mineral content of seventeen water samples from the students’ residential areas and environs of the Main Campus of the University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers State, Nigeria was carried out. The results showed that most of the physico-chemical quality indices of the water samples were within acceptable limits, except the nitrate levels of samples 13 and 14. The pH of all the samples were found to be acidic, with sample 12 having the lowest pH of 4.44. The hardness levels of the samples were determined to be very soft affirming the relationship between acidic pH and soft water. This increase in the corrosivity and plumbosolvency of the samples may result in long-term risk of metal poisoning from plumbing materials. However, the metal analysis showed only slight sodium and calcium contamination which may pose no health risk.

Introduction

About 829,000 people die annually from diarrhoea caused by poor sanitation, hand hygiene and drinking contaminated water. A number of diseases which include cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, polio, typhoid and hepatitis A are transmitted through contaminated water and poor hygiene. Deaths from contaminated water are preventable and efforts aimed at tackling this ugly menace be put in place. The 2010 UN General Assembly emphasised that access to water and sanitation are basic human rights requirements. But water which is the number one liquid for life has come under intense pressure, owing to climate change, population explosion, urbanization and scarcity of water in many places. According to WHO, about 50% of the world’s population would be living in water-stressed areas in 2025 [1].

Water quality can be compromised by the presence of unwanted chemicals, micro-organisms and even radiological hazards. The problem of provision of good quality water for human consumption in Nigeria has been a major challenge that has received little or no attention. The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control, (NAFDAC) is the body charged with the responsibility of ensuring the provision of good quality drinking water through the registration and quality assurance of commercially available drinking water [2]. However, majority of the Nigerian populace, in particular students shun commercially available water possibly due to the cost implication and still resort to water sources that lack quality assurance.

The vital role water plays include its ability to dissolve a wide range of substances, and has gained the status of being tagged the ‘universal solvent’. In the human body, two-thirds of the body is made up of water; which is the basic component of cells, tissues and the circulatory system. Due to the solvation character of water, cells are able to access nutrients in the body to produce energy, undergo metabolism and excrete waste in the body. Similarly, for drugs taken to elicit their desired activities, the drug substances must first be dissolved, prior to absorption into systemic circulation. It is well-known that acute dehydration may lead to death, which underscores the role of water as a life-sustaining fluid of great value and importance.

The University of Port Harcourt is sited in Choba community, Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers state, Nigeria. The state is one of the South-south states that constitute the oil-rich Niger-Delta Area, which has been the subject of oil exploration for more than 50 years. During this time, there have been oil spillages in the environment resulting in air, soil and water pollutions. This is evidenced in the recent United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report on the effects of oil spillages in Ogoniland in Rivers state. In this report water samples were obtained from boreholes drilled specifically for the research. The findings from the research revealed high levels of hydrocarbon, some organic and inorganic substances, some of which were carcinogenic [3]. The results further showed that in many locations, petroleum hydrocarbons had migrated to the groundwater. Furthermore, the host community of the University has also played host to an American oil exploration company for over two decades. To this end, it is expected that both soil and water in and around the community will be contaminated, especially with hydrocarbons and heavy metals.

This research aims to determine the physico-chemical parameters and the mineral content of the water sourced from deep water table within the students’ residential area and environs of the main campus of the University of Port Harcourt and to ascertain if the contamination is within safe limits. The standards by which this research would judge water quality is that prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Nigerian Industrial Standard developed by the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON).

Materials and Methods

1.1. Materials

1.1.1. Water Samples

Drinking water samples were collected from students’ residential areas and environs at the University of Port Harcourt Main Campus (Unipark, Abuja); the samples were collected from seventeen locations, which were described in (Table 1). The samples were collected using 2 L glass bottles fitted with an inner cork and an outer screw cap. The bottles were initially washed with detergent, rinsed thoroughly with tap water and then rinsed with distilled water. Prior to sample collection, the bottle was rinsed three times with the sample to be collected before collection. The samples were stored at room temperature. All titrations carried out in the physico-chemical analysis were done in triplicate for each sample and the average titre calculated.

1.2. Methods

1.2.1. pH Determination

Apparatus: pH Meter.

The pH meter was calibrated with standardized solutions of pH 4.0 and 9.1 respectively. The pH was read after inserting the electrode of the pH meter into the sample and allowing the reading to stabilize.

1.2.2. Total Alkalinity

1.2.3. Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.001105 M HC1, phenolphthalein indicator, and methyl orange indicator.25 ml of the sample was pipetted into a conical flask and 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added. There was no colour change (indicating the absence of carbonate and hydroxyl alkalinity). 2 drops of methyl orange indicator was added to the sample and titrated with the acid to a yellow endpoint.

1.2.4. Calculation:

Total Alkalinity (mg CaCO_3/L) =(M x V x 50000)/V_ (sample ) Bicarbonate Alkalinity (mg CaCO_3/L)=(M x V x 30500)/V_(sample )

Where M= molarity of HCI, V= titre value, and Vsample= Volume of Sample

1.2.5. Dissolved Co2 Content

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.01 M NaOH, phenolphthalein indicator.

25 ml of the sample was pipetted into a conical flask and 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added. Titration was done against the base. Endpoint was determined by colour change from colourless to pink.

Calculation

Dissoved CO_2 (mg/L)=(V x N x E x 1000)/V_(sample )

Where V=titre value , N=normality of the base (0.0128), E=equivalent

Weight of co2(22),Vsample=Volume of Sample

1.2.6. Chloride Determination (Precipitation Titration)

Principle:

The principle behind this titration is the precipitation of C1 as AgCl by AgNO3 before AgCrO4 (red) is formed at the endpoint

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.014N AgNO3 and K2CrO4 indicator

25 ml of sample was pipetted into a conical flask, 2 drops of the indicator was added and this was titrated against AgNO3 solution until there was a colour change form yellow to brick red.

Calculation:

Chloride (mg/L) =(V x N x E x 1000)/V_(sample )

Where V= titre value, N= normality of AgNO3 (0.014), E= equivalent

Weight of chloride ion (35.5),Vsample=Volume of sample used

1.2.7. Silica Determination (Molybdosilicate Method)

Principle

The Molybdosilicate Method is based on the principle that at a pH of about 1.2, ammonium molybdate ((NH4)6M07024.4H20) reacts with any silica and phosphate present in a sample to form hetero-polyacids. Oxalic acid is then added no neutralize any molybdophosphoric acid present. This reaction produces a yellow colour whose intensity is proportional to the silica that reacted with the molybdate. Standard colour solutions of silica are also prepared and the colour intensity can be visually compared or its absorbance can be measured.

Apparatus: Conical flasks, beakers, pipettes, ammonium molybdate reagent: (NH4)6MO7O24.4H2O), 1:1 HCI, oxalic acid (H2C204.2H20)

Ammonium molybdate: prepared by dissolving 10g of (NH4)6M07024.4H20) in distilled water.

Oxalic acid: prepared by dissolving 7.5 g of H2C204.2H20 in 100 ml of distilled water.

Potassium Chromate (K2CrO4) Solution: prepared by dissolving 315 mg of K2CrO4 in distilled water and made up to 500 ml.

Borax Solution: prepared by dissolving 2.5 g of borate decahydrate Na2B407.10H20 in distilled water and made up to 250 ml.

The standard colour solution of concentrations 0.00 — 1.00 (mg Si/L) was prepared by mixing volumes of distilled water, potassium chromate and borax in the proportion given in (Table 2).

The absorbance of the standard was measured using a UV spectrophotometer at 390 nm. 50 ml of sample was pipetted into a beaker and 2 ml of ammonium molybdate and 1 ml of 1:1 HC1 were added to the beaker. The resulting solution was thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand for 7 minutes. 2 ml of oxalic acid was then added and after 2 minutes, the absorbance of the solution was measured at 390 nm.

Calculation:

The silica content of each sample was determined by means of simple proportion, using the formula:

(Absorbance of standard)/(concentration of silica in standard )=(Absorbance of sample)/(concentration of silica in sample )

1.2.8. Total Hardness Determination (Edta Titrimetric Method)

Principle

Ethylene Diaminetetraacetic Acid, (EDTA) and its sodium salt forms chelated soluble complex when added to a solution of certain metal cations. The addition of a small amount of a dye such as Eriochrome Black T to an aqueous solution containing calcium and magnesium ions at pH of about 10, results in a wine red coloured solution. If EDTA is added as a titrant, any magnesium or calcium will be complexed and the solution will turn from wine red to blue.

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.01 M EDTA, Ammonia buffer, Eriochrome Black T indicator. 50 ml of sample was pipetted into the conical flask and 5 drops of indicator was added. 20 ml of Ammonia buffer was added and the resulting mixture was titrated with 0.01 M EDTA solution. The endpoint was determined by a colour change from wine red to blue.

Calculation

Total Hardness (mgCaCO_3/L)=(V x M x E x 2.5 x 1000)/V_sample

Where V=titre value,M=concentration of EDTA,2.5= (molecular mass of Ca〖CO〗_3)/(atomic mass of Ca^(2+) )

E=equivalent weight of Ca^(2+) (40),and V_ sample=Volume of sample

1.2.9. Sulphate Determination (Turbidimetric Method)

Principle:

Sulphate ion is precipitated in a hydrochloric acid medium with barium chloride (BaCI2) to form barium sulphate (BaSO4) crystals of uniform size. The absorbance of the BaSO4 suspension is measured using a UV spectrophotometer and the sulphate ion concentration is determined from the calibration curved developed

Apparatus: UV spectrophotometer, conical flasks, pipettes, beakers, spatula, sulphate conditioning reagent, sulphate stock solution.

Preparation Of Conditioning Reagent: the conditioning reagent was prepared by mixing 45 g of NaCI, 18 ml of conc. HCI, 60 ml of 20 % isopropyl alcohol, 30 ml of glycerol and 180 ml of distilled water in a beaker and stirred thoroughly with a glass rod until the solution was clear. Preparation of Sulphate Stock Solution: this was prepared by dissolving 147.9 mg of anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) in 1000 ml of distilled water. Preparation of Sulphate Standard Solution: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 ml respectively of the stock solution was pipetted into five 100 ml volumetric flasks and made up to the 100 ml mark with distilled water to produce 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 ppm of the sulphate stock solution. These were then transferred into appropriately labelled stopper reagent bottles.

Formation Of Baso4 Turbidity: 5 ml of the conditioning reagent was added to the each of the 100 ml standard solution as well as to 100 ml of each sample. This was stirred for one minute. During stirring, a spatula full of BaCl2 crystals was added. The absorbance or each standard as well as each sample was measured using the UV spectrophotometer at 420 nm. The agitated samples were allowed to stand the in UV spectrophotometer for 4 minutes before recording the reading.

Calculation

The absorbance of the five standard solutions were plotted against their concentrations to obtain a calibration curve. The equation of the resulting curve (Equation 1) was used to calculate the sulphate ion content for each sample.

y = 0.0054x + 0 ----------(equation 1)

(R2 = 0.971)

Where y = sulphate ion content (mg/L), 0.0054 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.10. Nitrate Determination (Brucine Colorimetric Method)

Apparatus/Reagents: UV Spectrophotometer, volumetric flasks, pipettes, beakers, brucine sulphanilic acid (brucine), conc. H2S04, 30 % NaC1, conc. HNO3, stock nitrate solution.

Preparation of Nitric Acid Stock Solution: 8.5 ml of conc. HNO3 was dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 500 ml in a 1000 ml measuring cylinder.

Preparation of Nitrate Standard Solution: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 ml respectively of the stock solution was pipetted into five 100 ml measuring cylinders and made up to the 100 ml mark with distilled water to produce 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 ppm of the nitrate stock solution. These were then transferred into appropriately labelled conical flasks.

5 ml of the 1 ppm standard solution was pipetted into a volumetric flask. I ml of 30 % NaCI and 10 ml of conc. H2S04 was added gently to the 1 ppm solution, followed by the addition of 0.1 g of brucine. Upon mixing, a deep red colour which turned yellow was produced. The absorbance of the resulting solution was measured using a UV spectrophotometer at 410 nm. The above procedure was repeated using 5 ml each of the remaining as well as for each sample.

Calculation:

The absorbance of each of five standard solutions was plotted against their concentration to obtain a calibration curve. The equation of the resulting curve (Equation 2) was used to calculate the content for each sample.

y = 0.0038x + 0 ----------------- (Equation 2)

(R2=0.9747)

Where y = nitrate content (mg/L), 0.0038 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.11. Determination of Calcium, Iron, Zinc, Lead,Chromium, Cadmium And Sodium Content by Atomic Adsorption Spectroscopy

The levels of the above mentioned heavy metals and non-heavy metals were determined using the atomic adsorption spectrometer of the following model: Bulk Scientific 205 AAA Model 210 VGP (with air-acetylene flame on absorbance mode and with injection volume of 7 ml/min). Calcium was determined at a wavelength of 423 nm, sodium at 589 nm, iron at 248, zinc at 214 nm, chromium 357nm, cadmium at 228 nm and lead at 283 nm.

Standard metal solutions for each metal were prepared and calibration curves for each metal were obtained from a linear plot of the absorbance of the standard against their concentrations in mg/L. This was used to determine the concentration of each metal in each sample by extrapolation from the calibration curves. The instrument was first calibrated to zero by aspirating a blank solution in the nebulizer. The samples were then aspirated in the nebulizer at 7 ml/min and the absorbance of each sample recorded.

Where M= molarity of HCI, V= titre value, and Vsample= Volume of Sample

Table 1: Sample sources and description in student’s residential areas and environs.

1.2.5. Dissolved Co2 Content

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.01 M NaOH, phenolphthalein indicator.

Calculation

Where V=titre value , N=normality of the base (0.0128), E=equivalent

Weight of co2(22),Vsample=Volume of Sample

1.2.6. Chloride Determination (Precipitation Titration)

Principle:

The principle behind this titration is the precipitation of C1 as AgCl by AgNO3 before AgCrO4 (red) is formed at the endpoint

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.014N AgNO3 and K2CrO4 indicator

25 ml of sample was pipetted into a conical flask, 2 drops of the indicator was added and this was titrated against AgNO3 solution until there was a colour change form yellow to brick red.

Calculation:

Where V= titre value, N= normality of AgNO3 (0.014), E= equivalent

Weight of chloride ion (35.5),Vsample=Volume of sample used

1.2.7. Silica Determination (Molybdosilicate Method)

Principle

Apparatus: Conical flasks, beakers, pipettes, ammonium molybdate reagent: (NH4)6MO7O24.4H2O), 1:1 HCI, oxalic acid (H2C204.2H20)

Ammonium molybdate: prepared by dissolving 10g of (NH4)6M07024.4H20) in distilled water.

Oxalic acid: prepared by dissolving 7.5 g of H2C204.2H20 in 100 ml of distilled water.

Potassium Chromate (K2CrO4) Solution: prepared by dissolving 315 mg of K2CrO4 in distilled water and made up to 500 ml.

Borax Solution: prepared by dissolving 2.5 g of borate decahydrate Na2B407.10H20 in distilled water and made up to 250 ml.

The standard colour solution of concentrations 0.00 — 1.00 (mg Si/L) was prepared by mixing volumes of distilled water, potassium chromate and borax in the proportion given in (Table 2).

Calculation:

The silica content of each sample was determined by means of simple proportion, using the formula:

Table 3: Physico-chemical characteristics of the sampled water sources.

1.2.8. Total Hardness Determination (Edta Titrimetric Method)

Principle

Calculation

1.2.9. Sulphate Determination (Turbidimetric Method)

Principle:

Apparatus: UV spectrophotometer, conical flasks, pipettes, beakers, spatula, sulphate conditioning reagent, sulphate stock solution.

Calculation

y = 0.0054x + 0 ----------(equation 1)

(R2 = 0.971)

Where y = sulphate ion content (mg/L), 0.0054 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.10. Nitrate Determination (Brucine Colorimetric Method)

Apparatus/Reagents: UV Spectrophotometer, volumetric flasks, pipettes, beakers, brucine sulphanilic acid (brucine), conc. H2S04, 30 % NaC1, conc. HNO3, stock nitrate solution.

Preparation of Nitric Acid Stock Solution: 8.5 ml of conc. HNO3 was dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 500 ml in a 1000 ml measuring cylinder.

Calculation:

y = 0.0038x + 0 ----------------- (Equation 2)

(R2=0.9747)

Where y = nitrate content (mg/L), 0.0038 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.11. Determination of Calcium, Iron, Zinc, Lead,Chromium, Cadmium And Sodium Content by Atomic Adsorption Spectroscopy

Results and Discussions

The results of the Physico-chemical characteristics of the sampled water sources are presented in (Table 3) below. From the results, the samples can be classified as generally soft. The highest hardness value from the result was 14.67 ± 0.00. According to the Twort Hardness classification, this falls in the soft water category [4]. This is directly related to the calcium levels of the samples. Calcium accounts for about two-thirds of water hardness. The recommended upper limit of calcium in drinking water is 50 mg/L. The calcium values were all less than 6.0 mg/L and this reflected in the low hardness values obtained.

The pH values of all samples were not within the acceptable limit of pH for safe drinking-water. The pH values of all the samples were generally acidic with a range of 4.44 to 6.06. Samples 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12 and 17 all had values below 5.0, with sample 12 having the lowest value of 4.44. The acidic nature of most samples can be attributed to the low hardness (soft water) of the samples. Soft water is known to be acidic and this increases the ‘plumbosolvency’ of such water.

Dissolved CO2 is one of the components of carbonate equilibrium in water. The highest value of CO2 was 12.02 ± 1.50 mg/L. Dissolved CO2 is significant in that high values of it (usually above 10 mg/L for surface waters) indicates a significant biological oxidation of the organic matter in water. Dissolved CO2 also has a direct relationship with pH and alkalinity. From the results, the dissolved CO2 level is low for all samples, indicating little biological oxidation of organic matter. At pH values between 4.6 and 8.3, bicarbonate alkalinity is in equilibrium with dissolved CO2. The generally low values of dissolved CO2 corresponds therefore to the generally low (bicarbonate) alkalinity.

Chloride in water does not have a negative health impact. Its impact is aesthetic in nature, with high concentrations exceeding 250 mg/L producing a salty taste (when the associated cation is sodium). The chloride levels of all samples were quite low, the highest value being 66.28 ± 1.33 mg/L.

The silica and sulphate concentrations were very low. The limits are 1-30 mg/L and 250 mg/L, respectively [5]. The silica content was almost insignificant (all less than 0.1 mg/L). The sulphate content was also very low; the highest being 2.96 mg/L for sample 14, and in some cases not determinable (samples. 11 and 15). Nitrate is naturally present in soil, water and food due to the nitrogen cycle. The activities of man also add to increase the nitrate levels in the environment. To this end, WHO and NIS set a limit of 50 mg/L, while EPA stipulates a stricter standard of not more than 10 mg/L (nitrate as nitrogen). The range of nitrate concentration for the samples was 11.32 — 58.68 mg/L by WHO and NIS [6].

Standard samples 13 and 14 have excess of nitrate (58.68 and 52.11 mg/L respectively). The nitrate concentration of sample 12 is just at the threshold (50 mg/L). Nitrate levels can become dangerously increased with the increased use of nitrogen based fertilizers and manure, coupled with the fact that nitrate is extremely soluble. The environment around the boreholes are such that support thriving of bacteria which play a significant role in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen easily leaches into groundwater from runoff [7]. Since the sample area is inhabited by mainly adults, the most lethal health effect of nitrate poisoning is not expected to be seen (infants are much more sensitive than adults to methaemoglobinaemia caused by nitrate, and essentially most deaths due to nitrate poisoning have been in infants). However, long term exposure to nitrates can, apart from causing methaemoglobinaemia and anaemia, cause diuresis, starchy deposits and haemorrhaging of the spleen. Nitrites in the stomach can react with food proteins to form nitrosoamines; these compounds can also be produced when meat containing nitrites or nitrates is cooked, particularly using high heat. While these compounds are carcinogenic in test animals, evidence is inconclusive regarding their potential to cause cancer (such as stomach cancer) in humans. The Levels of some selected heavy and non-heavy metals in the water samples were determined and the results shown in (Table 4).

The AAS determination of heavy and non-heavy metals showed that the samples were free from these metals except for sodium and calcium. The range of values for sodium was 0.40 — 16.30 mg/L, well below the guideline value set at 50 mg/L for sodium [8]. Sample 17 was the only sample with a trace of zinc (0.13 mg/L) and this was well below the limit of 3 mg/L set by NIS [9] and 5 mg/L set by EPA [10] The increased corrosivity of these samples therefore has an increased associated risk of dissolving metals and non metals including lead, iron, zinc, nickel, brass, copper and cement/concrete [8]. If the water distribution system was laid with pipes containing any of these metals, then the risk of increased levels of these, especially lead would be high. However, this seems not to be the case because the lead levels obtained from AAS analysis of all the samples were all either zero or very low.

Table 3: Physico-chemical characteristics of the sampled water sources.

Table 4: Levels of some selected heavy and non-heavy metals in water samples.

Conclusion And Recommendation

The physico-chemical analyses performed on the samples, demonstrated that the physico-chemical quality of the water samples were mostly within the specified limits as stated by WHO and EPA. The health implications of the physico-chemical quality were considered to be of importance on the longterm basis, since these contaminants at the levels at which they occurred in the water samples can accumulate over time. The pH of the samples was found to be acidic. It can be concluded that the same acidic aquifer serves the entire sample area. The pH of water must be controlled through increasing alkalinity and calcium levels since acidic water tends to be corrosive and can dissolve metal fittings and cement into water, leading to contamination. Also, the nature of construction materials that have been used and that will be used in the future should be reviewed to ensure that it can withstand the acidity of the water. It was not in the scope of this research to determine the size of the underground water aquifer, but it is recommended therefore that the size of the underground aquifer be determined in other to ascertain the extent to which the recommendations for remediation proposed herein would be implemented. The nitrate levels of 2 samples were also found to exceed the acceptable limit (50 mg/L as nitrate ion), while one sample had 50 mg/L as its value. It is recommended that biological denitrification for surface water and ion exchange for ground water is employed in order to reduce the nitrate levels.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

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Friday, 19 March 2021

Assessment of Hygiene in Collective Restaurants of Abidjan City (côte d'ivoire) by Kouamé Kohi Alfred in

Assessment of Hygiene in Collective Restaurants of Abidjan City (côte d'ivoire) by Kouamé Kohi Alfred in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Abstract

In the collective restaurants especially, the large quantities of food prepared on a daily basis mean that the basic rules of hygiene are often neglected. This is particularly true in our countries where the workforce often has a low level of training. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of hygiene measures implemented in collective restaurants in the industrial zone of Yopougon (YOP1 and YOP 2) and a University Hospital Center (CHU) in Abidjan to ensure food safety for the guests. An inspection of three collective restaurants in the city of Abidjan was carried out. Sampling of the dishes as well as the diving areas and the hands of food handlers just before the completion of their task were carried out for the search and enumeration of Mesophilic Aerobic Germs, Staphylococcus aureus, coliforms and Salmonella. It was found that the food, the hands of the producers and the diving areas were contaminated with Mesophilic Aerobic Germs and Staphylococcus aureus. The loads ranged from 0 to (2.6±0.3)109 CFU/g and 0 to (1.57±0.1)106 CFU/g, respectively. These loads were in compliance with EC standard No. 2073/2005. The food supplied by these restaurants was then of unsatisfactory microbiological quality.

Keywords: Collective restaurants, hygiene, microorganisms

Introduction

The reference to quality in its various meanings has become omnipresent, as the food product undergoes transformations and manipulations of which the consumer knows neither the nature nor the manipulators. The perceived quality of food, refers to a complex set of qualities expected from six aspects: nutritional, organoleptic, functional, social and health; not the least of these, the health quality of food refers to chemical and bacteriological safety. Collective restaurants are an economic activity that aims to ensure the common intake of food by a group of people outside the domestic setting. It includes the preservation and distribution of meals for collective use. Collective restaurants are defined as public or private establishments that provide a catering service free of charge or for a fee and where at least part of the clientele is made up of a community of regular consumers [1,2]. The safety of the food served by these establishments remains a major concern for the official services in charge of control. Ready-made meals are obtained from various foodstuffs, each with a specific flora. In mass catering, the respect of hygiene principles is a vital issue because food poisoning can be a sign of food insalubrity for the consumer. In industry, food poisoning can affect company performance through increased absenteeism [3]. In France between 1995 and 2005, 5847 outbreaks of TIAC, 80351 patients, 7364 hospitalisations and 45 deaths were recorded out of the total number of outbreaks, 64% of which occurred in collective or commercial catering. However, food poisoning mobilizes the media, which tend to amplify the accidents, the slightest toxi-infection is considered a disaster. The discredit thus thrown away can weigh heavily on the future of a company that prepares meals in advance [4]. This is why hygiene rules must be enforced in restaurants in order to prevent various food-borne diseases. The purpose of this work was to assess the effectiveness of the hygiene measures implemented in collective restaurants in the industrial zone of Yopougon and a University Hospital Center (CHU) in Abidjan to ensure food safety for diners.

Materials and Methods

1.1.             Study Sites
Two restaurants from two companies in the industrial zone of Yopougon as well as a restaurant from a University Hospital Center (CHU) in Abidjan were selected for this study. The two restaurants in the Yopougon industrial zone provided food to the workers of these enterprises, while the University Hospital Center provided food to the patients of this center. These two restaurants were selected for their willingness to participate in this study, but also because of the economic importance of the businesses that host these restaurants. For the restaurant of the CHU, it was chosen because the patients that the restaurant provides the meals are people at risk.

1.2.             Sampling
An inspection of restaurants was carried out according to [5] method. The places where utensils were stored, and where food was stored before being served to customers were inspected. Ready-made and ready-to-serve dishes were collected from each restaurant. Samples were taken from the hands of the producers just prior to serving and from the surfaces of the dish washing areas and kitchen utensils using the method of Kouame et al. [6]. Three samples were taken in each restaurant. After sampling, the samples were placed in a cooler containing dry ice and transported to the laboratory within four hours of collection for the various analyses.

1.3.             Isolation and Enumeration of Bacteria
The stock solution and decimal dilutions were performed according to the methods of [7]. For the analyses, ten grams (10 g) of samples were crushed and taken under sterile conditions created by the ﬂame of a bunsen burner and mixed in a "stomacher" bag with 90 mL of buffered peptone water (AES Laboratoire, COMBOURG France) previously sterilized and used as diluent. Mesophilic aerobic germs (MAG) were counted on PCA (Plate count Agar) agar (Oxoid LTD, Basingstore, Hamsphire, England) after two (2) days of incubation at 30 °C according to AFNOR Standard NF V08-051, 1999. The research and counting of Staphylococcus aureus were done on Baird Parker agar after one (1) day of incubation at 30 °C using [8] method. Violet crystal and neutral red biliated lactose agar (VRBL agar) was used for coliform count,after one (1) day of incubation at 30 °C for total coliforms and 44°C for faecal coliforms according to AFNOR Standard, NF ISO 4832 July 1991. The isolation and enumeration of Salmonella were carried out using Hendriksen [9] method in several steps. This was achieved by pre-enrichment in a non-selective medium, followed by enrichment in a selective medium and culture on selective agar. For enrichment in non-selective or pre-enrichment media, a quantity of Twenty-ﬁve grams (25) g of samples was homogenized with 225 mL of peptonned water in a sterile jar, incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. For selective recording, one milliter (1 mL) of the pre-enriched culture was transferred using a sterile pipette into 10 mL of previously prepared sterile Rappaport Vassililiadis. broth and incubated for 24 h at 37°C. Salmonella enumeration was performed on Salmonella Shigella agar (Oxoid). Each enrichment culture was streaked on Shigella-Salmonella (SS) agar and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. On Salmonella-Shigella agar, the presumptive colonies were colourless, transparent, with or without a black centre.

1.4.             Statistical Analysis

The software R. 3–01 was used for the statistical analysis, ANOVA test and Duncan post-hoc test were performed at the signiﬁcance level 5%. This software made it possible to calculate the means, the standard deviations of the microbiological parameters. It also made it possible to compare the means of the microbiological parameters of the samples and to determine whether the differences observed in the means of the microbiological parameters are signiﬁcant at the 5% threshold.

Results

Two restaurants in the industrial zone of yopougon will be rated YOP 1 and YOP 2, one at the University Hospital Center will be rated CHU for ethical reasons.
1.1.             Microbial Load of the Menus, the Hands of the Producers, The Utensils and of the YOP1 Dive Zone
Ordinary sauce made from vegetables, tomatoes and fish, the kitchen utensils and the hands of the food service staff were free of microorganisms. The raw vegetables (starter dish) were contaminated with Mesophilic Aerobic Germs (MAG) and Staphylococcus aureus with respective loads of (3.8±0.4)107 CFU/g; (1.47±0.1)106 CFU/g. The special sauce (for use in the company), rice, ready-to-eat potatoes and the diving area were contaminated with Mesophilic Aerobic Germs (MAG) with respective loads of (1.2±0.7)107 CFU/ml; (3.2±0.1)105 CFU/g; (6.1±0.7)105 CFU/g; (9.1±0.8)106 CFU/cm2. All samples shall be free of Salmonella (Tables 1 & 2).

1.2.             Microbial Load of Menus, Producers' Hands, Utensils and YOP2 Dive Zone
The raw vegetables (starter dish), the rice dish and the hands of the food service staff were free of microorganisms. The special sauce (intended for the company's staff), the ordinary sauce, the ready-to-eat potatoes, the kitchen utensils and the dishwashing area were contaminated with Mesophilic Aerobic Germs (MAG) with respective loads of (2±0.3)106 CFU/ml; (1.5±0.1)106 CFU/ml; (1.5±0.2)105 CFU/g; (5±0.6)107 CFU/cm2 and (2.6±0.3)109 CFU/cm2 respectively. All samples are free of Salmonella (Tables 3 & 4).

1.3.             Microbial Load of Menus, Producers' Hands, Utensils and Chu Dive Zone
All samples tested were coliform-free except for attiéké. In addition, the samples of attiéké were contaminated with all the germs tested with a predominance of Mesophilic Aerobic Germs which had a load of (2±1.2)104 CFU/g. Staphylococcus aureus predominated in fried fish with a load of (2±0.1)104 CFU/g while Mesophilic Aerobic Germs predominated in peanut sauce with a load of (2.5±0.9)105 CFU/ml. All samples were free of Salmonella (Tables 5 & 6).

Table1: Microbial loads in YOP1 menus.

Table 2: Microbial load on the hands of producers, utensils and the diving area of YOP1.
Table 3: Microbial loads in YOP2 menus.
Table 4: Microbial load on the hands of producers, utensils and the diving area of YOP2.
Table 5 : Microbial loads in CHU menus.
Table 6: Microbial load on the hands of producers, utensils and the diving area of CHU.

Discussion

Collective restaurants in companies and for hospital patients are becoming more and more indispensable nowadays. This allows the company to keep these employees on site and to control their food in order to avoid possible food poisoning problems. As for the hospitals, it allows them to follow and control the diet of their patients. However, poor hygiene management in these restaurants will be a source of problems for these companies and hospitals. The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of hygiene measures implemented in collective restaurants in the industrial zone of Yopougon and a University Hospital Center (CHU) in Abidjan in order to ensure the food safety of the guests.

The meals served as well as the hands of the providers and the diving areas of the restaurants YOP 1 and YOP 2 and CHU were of unsatisfactory microbiological quality according to the EC standard n° 2073/2005 except for the fish soup served at the CHU restaurant. Similar results were found in Senegal by Tayou [10] in a study of the hygiene of modern collective restaurants in Dakar. The menus served by the restaurants in this study were colonized by microorganisms with loads exceeding the standard. The presence of these microorganisms reflects an exposure of the dishes to a soiled environment (air, spoon pot, plates etc.). Their presence also provides information on the state of property of food handlers, the conditions of conservation, the efficiency of the processes of treatment of products. It remains the best indicator of the application of good hygiene practices. Staphylococci are of human origin (skin, hair, nostrils, mouth) and indicate a lack of hygiene their presence in the dishes of these restaurants meant a lack of personal hygiene of food handlers. In addition, the microbiological quality of the meals served to consumers depends on the initial contamination of raw materials, the possibility of additional contamination at each stage of the production process, the possibility of residual contamination when a sanitizing treatment is applied, and the potential for multiplication of microorganisms present in the food [11]. A poorly adapted hygiene policy will result in an increase in biological contamination with the possibility of development of pathogenic microorganisms (Salmonella, coliforms, Staphylococci) with a risk of food poisoning [3]. The poor quality of the food produced by these companies could impact on the health of workers and consequently increase the rate of absenteeism and affect the performance of the companies.

Conclusion

In our country, collective restaurants are growing every day, particularly in companies. When the hygienic conditions of this catering are not respected, the result is that the meals present a considerable risk due to the possible presence of pathogenic microorganisms for the consumer. The distribution of meals to communities therefore requires special control in order to protect the health of the guests. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of hygiene measures implemented in collective restaurants in the industrial zone of Yopougon and a University Hospital Center (CHU) in Abidjan to ensure the food safety of the guests. It was found that the dishes as well as the dishwashing areas and the hands of food handlers contained germs such as Staphylococcus and Mesophilic Aerobic Germs. The loads of these germs in most cases exceeded the EC standard No. 2073/2005. The dishes were therefore of unsatisfactory microbiological quality. The poor quality of the food from these companies could impact on the health of the workers and consequently increase the rate of absenteeism and affect the performance of the companies.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that there is no competing interest related to this manuscript

Authors' Contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Authors, KKA, BKJP, BZBIA, designed the study, performed the statistical analysis, wrote the protocol and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Authors DKM managed the analyses of the study. Author KKA managed the literature searches. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Immunity Booster Activity of Lamb's Quarters: Nutritive Value and Economic Importance by Kamal Prasad in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Immunity Booster Activity of Lamb's Quarters: Nutritive Value and Economic Importance by Kamal Prasad in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Abstract

Lamb's quarters (Chenopodium album) is annual weeds found in worldwide. Leaves are immunity booster contains important nutritive value as energy, carbohydrate, fiber, protein, fat, vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, C, minerals Ca, Fe, Mg, P, K, Na and Zn. Lamb's quarters also contain trypsin inhibitor activity, phenols and tannins, saponin, phytic acid, phytate phosphorus, alkaloids, flavonoids, oxalates, oils, proteins, trace elements and many other bioactive contents. Lamb's quarters exerted was anti-inflammatory, analgesic, gastro protective, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, insecticidal and many other activities. The present manuscript was highlighting the nutritive value and its economic importance of Lamb's quarters.

Keywords: Immunity booster, Lamb’s quarters, Leaves, Nutrient contains, Importance

Introduction

Lamb's quarters (Chenopodium album), also called pigweed, annual weedy plant of the amaranth family (Amaranthaceae). These are one of the most common weeds grows in sunny or partially sunny areas including gardens, backyards, roadsides, fallow fields and human habitation. It is usually blooms from July to November months. It is widely distribution in Asia, Europe, and North America. It can grow up to three metres but is usually a smaller plant. Young green leaves and seeds are eatable with vital nutritive value. Its leaves are eaten both raw and cooked. It’s no wonder humans have both foraged and cultivated this free-ranging food for hundreds of generations. Lamb’s quarters leaves are very common in Indian cuisine especially in North Indian dishes and are used much like other greens. The present manuscript has been critically discussed various aspects of Lamb’s quarters role in immunity booster activity and their economic importance.

1.1. Identifying Lamb's Quarters

It has alternate, triangle- to diamond-shaped leaves that are coarsely toothed or shallowly lobed. The leaves bear a whitish-gray powdery coating, which is especially evident on the emerging young leaves.

1.2. Cultivation

The Lamb's quarters species are cultivated as a grain or vegetable crop as well as animal feed in Asia and Africa, whereas in Europe and North America, it is commonly regarded as a weed in places such as potato fields [1] while in Australia it is naturalised in all states and regarded as an environmental weed in New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia and the Northern Territory.

1.3. Potential Impact on Conventional Crops

Lamb's quarters species are one of the more robust and competitive weeds, capable of producing crop losses of up to 13% in corn, 25% in soybeans, and 48% in sugar beets at an average plant distribution. It may be controlled by dark tillage, rotary hoeing, or flaming when the plants are small. Crop rotation of small grains will suppress an infestation. It is easily controlled with a number of pre-emergence herbicides [2].

1.4. Chemical Components

Chemical analysis of 100g Lamb’s quarters leaves showed that they contained trypsin inhibitor activity (0.11-0.17 TIU/mg), total phenols (224.99-304.98 mgGAE), simple phenols (72.50-101.007mgGAE) and tannins (152.49- 203.91 mgGAE), saponin (0.043-0.867g), phytic acid (238.3-268.33mg), phytate phosphorus (67.16-75.62mg, alkaloids (1-27-1.53mg), flavonoids (220.0-406.67mg) and oxalates (394.19-477.08mg) [3,4]. The leaves of Lamb’s quarters gave 0.64% oil v/w. The oils of the leaves of Lamb’s quarters contained (%): tricyclene: trace, α-thujene: trace, α-pinene: 7.0, camphene: trace, sabinene: trace, β-pinene: 6.2, myrecene: trace, p-cymene: 40.9, limonene: 4.2, benzyl alcohol: trace,1,8-cineole: trace, cis-ocimene: trace, γ-terpinene: trace, linalool: trace, pinane-2-ol: 9.9 , allo ocimene: trace, citronellal: trace, borneol: trace, terpinen-4-ol: trace,α-terpineol:6.2, citronellol: trace, ascaridole:15.5, neral: trace, linalyl acetate: 2.0, geranial: trace, borneol acetate: trace, thymol: trace, carvacrol: trace, ethyl cinnamate: 3.7, acetyl eugenol: trace, elemicin: trace and benzyl benzoate: trace [5].

1.5. Nutritive Food Value of Green Leaves

Lamb's quarters use as food is very low in saturate fat and cholesterol. Its leaves are high in fiber, protein and are loaded with both Vitamins A and C. The plant is also high in manganese, calcium, copper and has a bit of iron, and is high in both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and very less amount of oxalic acid. After washing and cooking of seeds and leaves eliminates most oxalic acid, quinoa and saponin. 100gm leaves contains energy -180 KJ (43kcal); Carbohydrates – 7.3g, Dietary fiber -4.0g, Fat- 0.8g, Protein – 4.2g; Vitamins (Quantity %DV): Vitamin A- 73.0% (580µg), Thiamine (B1) -14% (0.16mg), Riboflavin (B2) -37% (0.44mg), Niacin (B3) – 8% (1.2mg), Pantothenic acid (B5) – 2% (0.092mg), Vitamin (B6) – 21.0% (0.274mg), Folate (B9) – 8.0% (30µg), Vitamin C – 96.0% (80mg); Minerals (Quantity % DV): Calcium -31.0% (309mg), Iron - 9.0% (1.2g), Magnesium -10.0% (34mg), Manganese -37.0% (0.782 mg), Phosphorus – 10.0% (72mg), Potassium – 10.0% (452 mg), Sodium -3.0% (43mg) and Zinc – 5.0% (0.44mg) [6]. Currently, Lamb’s quarters is eaten in Japan, South Africa, Europe, India, and the Americas.

1.6. Traditional Medicinal Activity

In India, the plant is used as a laxative, diuretic, sedative and the infusion of the plant is used for the treatment of rheumatism [7]. It was also used as an antidiarrhoeal, antiphlogistic, antirheumatic, contraceptive, odontalgic, cardiotonic, antiscorbutic, blood purifier, digestive, carminative, aphrodisiac, for the treatment of dyspepsia, flatulence, strangury, seminal weakness, pharyngopathy, splenopathy, hemorrhoids, ophthalamopathy, cardiac disorder, hepatic disorder, spleen enlargement, biliousness, intestinal ulcers, and general debility [8-11]. The plant was also used traditionally as, anthelmintic against round and hookworms, antiscorbutic [12], for treatment of abdominal pain, eye disease, throat troubles and cardiovascular disorders [13]. Boiled tender shoot is used in constipation [14]. Decoction of aerial parts mixed with alcohol was rubbed on the body part affected by arthritis and rheumatism [15].

1.7. Animal Feed

Lamb's quarters leave use as feed for animal and the leaves and seeds feed for chickens and other poultry.

1.8. Antioxidant Activity

The total oxidative status (TOS) and total antioxidative status (TAS) levels were determined to evaluate the antioxidant activity of Lamb's quarters ethanolic leaf extract (CAE). Results indicated that there was a good correlation between dose of CAE and TAS levels [16]. The antioxidant activity (expressed as percent inhibition relative to control, using β-carotene bleaching method) of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Lamb's quarters were 64.5 and 60.5% respectively [17]. The extracts also caused DPPH radical scavenging activities which were comparable to those of ascorbic acid. This was also the same for BHT scavenging activity [3]. The protective effect of CAE was evaluated on both yeast and human mononuclear leukocytes' genomic DNA upon oxidative shock. Chenopodium album ethanolic leaf extract (CAE) protected the DNA of both yeast and mononuclear leukocytes against the damaging effect of hydrogen peroxide [16].

1.9. Anticancer Activity

Methanolic extract of Lamb's quarters leaves exhibited maximum antibreast cancer activity having IC50 value 27.31 mg/ml against MCF-7 cell line. Significant percent inhibition (94.06%) was recorded for MeOH extract of Lamb's quarters leaves at 48 h of exposure and concentration 100 mg/ml (p < 0.05) against MCF-7 breast cancer cell line [18].

1.10. Antimicrobial Activity

The extracts of the leaves caused varied inhibition of some bacterial strains [3]. The antibacterial activity of Lamb’s quarters ethanolic leaf extract (CAE) was studied against gram positive and gram-negative microorganisms. Antibacterial activity was recorded against Bacillus subtilis with 13mm of inhibition zone [16]. The in vitro antimicrobial activities of the flowers and leaves methanolic and ethanolic extracts of Lamb’s quarters was studied against 4 bacterial strains such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus [17]. However, in other studies, the antibacterial activity of Lamb’s quarters was investigated against five human pathogenic bacteria like Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris and Pseudomonas aueruginosa. The leaf extracts of Lamb’s quarters (aqueous and methanol) exhibited significant antibacterial activity against all the tested bacteria. The strongest activity was recorded against Pseudomonas aeruginosa with (28.30 mm) zone of inhibition, while, the lowest antibacterial activity was observed against Salmonella typhimurium with (14.00 mm) zone of inhibition [19].

1.11. Antifungal Activity

Antifungal activity of methanol and n-hexane leaf, stem, root and inflorescence extracts of Lamb’s quarters (1, 2, 3 and 4% w/v) was investigated against Macrophomina phaseolina, a soil-borne fungal plant pathogen that has a broad host range and wide geographical distribution. The n-hexane extracts of Lamb’s quarters reduced fungal biomass by 60-94% [20].

1.12. Insecticidal Activity

Insecticidal effect was exerted by the petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride and methanol extract of Lamb’s quarters against malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi Liston. It influenced the early life cycle of Anopheles stephensi by reducing the percentage of hatching, larval, pupal and adult emergence and also lengthening the larval and pupal periods. The growth index was also reduced significantly [21].

1.13. Pest Control

Lamb’s quarters grown for food are an esoteric veggie that doesn’t make much of an environmental impact to other plants; it attracts leaf miners which might otherwise have attacked the crop to be protected. It is a host plant for the beet leafhopper, an insect which transmits curly top virus to beet crops.

1.14. Sustainability of Lamb’s Quarters

Generally, Lamb’s quarters grown for food are an esoteric veggie that doesn’t make much of an environmental impact. But it is considered an invasive weed in industrial agricultural operations, made more difficult to eradicate because it prefers nitrogen rich soils.

1.15. Construction

The leaves juice of this plant is a potent ingredient for a mixture of wall plaster, according to the Samarangaṇa Sutradhara, which is a Sanskrit treatise dealing with Silpasastra (Hindu science of art and construction) [22].

Conclusion

Lamb’s quarters grown for food as green vegetable and are an esoteric veggie that doesn’t make much of an environmental impact could be utilized in several medical applications because of its effectiveness and safety.

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