Emerging Trends in University of Buea Library and the Realization of Global Education by Medical Students

Emerging Trends in University of Buea Library and the Realization of Global Education by Medical Students  by Mbah Relean-Jeans in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Abstract

This study made use of medical students in the Faculty of Health Sciences to investigate the emerging trends in University of Buea Library (UBL) towards the realization of global education. The population consisted of 1049 students in the Faculty of Health Sciences (FHS) University of Buea, South West Region (SWR) of Cameroon. Proportionate stratified and simple random sampling techniques were respectively adopted in the selection and use of a sample size of 500 medical students which represented 51% of the population. Percentage was used as a statistical tool in analyzing the data. The findings of the study revealed that UBL is very much at the fore front of major emerging trends in librarianship which foster global education through research. However, it was recommended that University Librarian, Vice Chancellor and other stake holders should put hand on deck to ensure adequate utility of available information resources in the library.

Introduction

A library can be defined as an institution that acquires, organizes and makes available information resources to a defined community of users in other to satisfy their information needs which could be reading, research or recreation. Unlike in the past where traditional libraries offered strictly physical access to principally ‘hard’ books, today most modern libraries are organized institutions which provide digital access to ‘soft’ information resources like e-books and audio books. A library may be a physical space e.g. a building which is usually a magnificent structure (traditional library), a virtual space (electronic library) or a physical space which incorporates virtual activities (hybrid library). However, libraries are classified based on the immediate role they play and the institution to which they are attached. In this regards, there exist six different types of libraries namely: academic library, school library, public library, national library, special library and private library. Among these six types of libraries only academic library is useful to this research paper.

An academic library is a library found within tertiary education and is therefore attached to a university or other institutions of higher learning such as polytechnics and colleges of education. Edoka [1] argued that academic libraries exist in institutions of higher education such as universities, colleges of technology and polytechnics. Therefore, University of Buea Library (UBL) is an academic library and as such its principal function is to acquire information resources in all forms and formats and in all areas of knowledge, organize and disseminate them to students and lecturers as a prerequisite for teaching, learning, research and outreach. It is a learning center which provides materials that are required for the teaching and learning of all the courses that are offered in the university as well as potential courses that are planned to be offered later by current and future curricula respectively. According to Ntui and Edam-Agbor [2], the principal functions of an academic library include the following

1. To provide information materials required for the academic programmes of its parent university
2. To provide research information resources in consonance with the needs of faculties and research students
3. To provide information resources for recreation and for personal self-development of users
4. To provide study accommodation in a useful variety of locations
5. To provide protection and security for these materials
6. To co-operate with other libraries at appropriate levels for improved information services
7. To provide specialized information services to appropriate segments of the wilder community

The iconographic power of a university library expresses a purpose not just to collect, but also to organize, preserve, and make knowledge accessible. Today on several university campuses, the advents of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Internet have brought about automation and digitization in countless academic libraries. Automation and digitization have brought a wind of change in the way things are done in academic libraries. In this dispensation, the adequate type of library to identify with is nothing other than electronic or virtual library. In most higher education institutions, electronic library occupies a central position in the educational life of those concerned. In its placement and prominence, the electronic academic library plays an integral role in supporting higher education’s core missions of research, teaching,learning and outreach.

As higher education keeps evolving at a global scene from one decade to another and from one century to another, practices and services in university libraries correspondingly keep evolving, in order to forge pathways to serve faculties and students more effectively. Academic and research libraries have been early adopters of digital technologies and have provided leadership and training to help remake the academic enterprise. And yet, for all their success in accommodating and even powering recent transformations in higher education, some university libraries in Cameroon, for instance University of Buea Library still needs to ask and answer a series of fundamental questions among which include the following:

1. To what extent, and in what ways, is University of Buea Library changing and is more likely to continue changing?
2. What new roles have librarians in University of Buea Library assumed (or what new roles will they come to assume) in the face of major transformation such as digital change?
3. What aspects of University of Buea Library need urgent transformation?
4. What type of new technology has been or is currently being or should be acquired and implemented in University of Buea Library?
In trying to answer these questions University of Buea Library should be able to realize that the years ahead constitute an age of transformation for academic and research libraries. Therefore, if the expected transformation has not yet happened, or is not happening, what is certain is that some days to come it will happen in each and every academic library.

Statement of Problem

Global education can hardly be achieved without the acquisition, adoption and implementation of major emerging transformations in academic or research libraries. Academic libraries all over the world are nonresistant in adopting new Information and Communication Technology and Internet neither are they hesitant in adopting automation and digitization. These are major transformations that have been assessed and proven to be the driving force behind modern research in an attempt to ensure global education [3]. For approximately two centuries now (twentieth and twenty-first centuries), academic libraries have been confronting the need to re-conceive and reconstruct the means by which they supportlecturers, faculties and students in teaching, learning, research and education. The business of libraries can now be understood as one component of a rapidly evolving, almost wholly transformed environment in which information is proliferating at heretofore unimagined rates and in which the ability of academic libraries to deliver authenticated and reliable information is continuously challenged by new technologies [4].

According to a report commissioned by the Research Information Network and the Consortium of Research Libraries (RINCRL) titled “Use of Academic Libraries and their Services” if a library is electronic, its users who are researchers are on the whole satisfied with the services it provides. The survey conducted by this Research Information Network and Consortium of Research Libraries showed that nearly three-quarters of researchers believed that their institution’s electronic library provides the information resources and services they need “very effectively”. However, the pace of technological change and the increasing availability of digital information impose pressures on libraries, and highlight the tension between what could be done in an ideal world and what can be done in practical terms. As expectations have changed, librarians face growing demands from researchers for better access to research information resources and tools. It is for this reason that the researcher decided to use students in the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea, Cameroon, in finding out various emerging trends (if there are any) in University of Buea Library and the new face of research towards the realization of global education.

Literature Review

Greenstein [5] recognized digitization as a major transformation in academic libraries capable of fueling research to ensure global education. This could mean that academic libraries which are lagging behind in this direction may not be at the fore front of global education. Greenstein [5] opined that digital libraries extend the breadth and scale of scholarly and cultural evidence and supports innovative research and lifelong learning. To do this, it mediates between diverse and distributed information resources on the one hand and a changing range of user communities on the other hand.

A rather sub emerging transformation from digitization, is what Greenstein [5] called “a digital library service environment” that is, a networked online information space in which users can discover, locate, acquire and access increasingly used information. Although access paths may vary depending on a particular resource in question, Greenstein [5] is of the opinion that “digital library service environment makes no distinctions among information formats. Books, journals, paper-based archives, video, film, and sound recordings are as visible in the digital library service environment as are online catalogs, finding aids, abstracting and indexing services, e-journal and e-book services, digitized collections and other Internet/electronic resources”.

Etim, Ebong and Gilean [6] regarded a digital library as a collection of texts, images, etc., encoded so as to be stored, retrieved, and read by computer; or a collection of documents in organized electronic form, available on the Internet or on CD ROM disks. However, there is a traditional, conventional or physical library which these authors posit that it provides a basis for the digital library. Meanwhile [7,8] in revealed that in the last couple of years, students and lecturers in Nigerian tertiary institutions have increasingly demanded and preferred access to electronic sources delivery and networked information from their respective libraries. These authors identified Internet access as one of the greatest emerging technological advancements being experienced in this 21st century that can ensure efficient research and thus global education. Furthermore, these authors also identified the new Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as an overall emerging tool that fosters research in academic libraries. ICT has gone a long way to influence the mode of information gathering, storage, retrieval and dissemination in this dispensation. Internet access is used for electronic mailing services, electronic on-line chats, group activities among others [9]. This has resulted in increased access to timely, accurate, relevant and current information in most ICT compliant libraries all over the world. Consequently, Etim, Ebong and Gilean [6] opined as follows:

“Global educational development and academic library research are two inseparable and indivisible concepts, both being fundamentally and synchronically related to and co-existent with each other. One cannot be separated from the other. None of them is an end in itself; rather both of them are a means to an ultimate end. One dies as soon as the other perishes. One survives as long as the other exists. This twined-nature concept emerged from the birth of human civilization and rose to posterity through a process of evolution in accord with varied needs, changes, and circumstances of various stages of human life. Library has no meaning if it cannot impart education. A well-equipped digital library is a sine qua non for the intellectual, moral, and spiritual advancement and elevation of the people of a given society. pp. 21-22”

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to use students in the faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea, Cameroon, in finding out various emerging trends in University of Buea Library, towards the realization of global education. Specifically, the study sought to:
i. Determine whether University of Buea Library provides emerging trends in librarianship.
ii. Identify major emerging trends in librarianship that University of Buea Library provides to students
     in the Faculty of Health Sciences
iii. Determine the extent to which students in the Faculty of Health Sciences make use of identified
     emerging library trends in University of Buea Library when conducting research.

Research Question

The main research question of the study was asked thus: what are the various emerging trends in University of Buea Library in accordance with the realization of global education? The following specific research questions were asked:
i. Does University of Buea Library provide emerging trends in librarianship?
ii. What major emerging trends in librarianship does University of Buea Library provide to students in         the Faculty of Health Sciences?
iii. To what extent do medical students in the Faculty of Health Sciences make use of identified             emerging library trends in University of Buea Library when they are conducting research.

Methodology

This study was conducted in University of Buea. The population consisted of 1049 students in the Faculty of Health Sciences. Proportionate stratified and simple random sampling techniques were adopted in the selection and use of a sample size of 525 medical students which represented 50% of the population. Consequently, 525 questionnaires titled Questionnaire for Emerging Transformations in Library towards the Realization of Global Education (QETLRGE)were distributed to the respondents. The administration of questionnaires was done in various laboratories, libraries, lectures halls and amphitheatres of the Faculty of Health Sciences. However, 500 copies were returned, representing 95% return rate. For easy understanding of research data computation, non-parametric statistics mainly percentage was used in analyzing respondents’ points of view.

Data Analysis and Presentation of Findings

Demographic Information of Respondents in FHS
Out of 500 respondents that were used for the exercise, the following information in (Table 1) was decoded from their demography. In all the departments in the Faculty of Health Sciences, 59%, 31.8% and 9.2% of respondents were between the age brackets of 18–28, 29–39 and 40+ years respectively. With respect to sex, 70% and 30% of respondents were male and female respectively.

Research Question
Does University of Buea Library provide emerging trends in librarianship?
Statistics in (Table 2) revealed that 38.4% of respondents accepted that University of Buea Library could be accessed remotely. This was opposed to 61.6% of respondents who rejected the fact that University of Buea Library could be accessed remotely. 47.8% of the students who took part in the research accepted that University of Buea Library provided ICT services, contrarily, 52.2% of the students declined from this fact and refuted that University of Buea Library provided ICT services to its users. An average response was obtained onthe item which sought to know whether University of Buea Library has Internet connectivity or not. While 52% of respondents attested to the presence of Internet connectivity in University of Buea Library, 48% refused and sounded negative to this fact. Despite all the points recorded for disagreement on a variety of issues, the respondents converged on a single point when they unanimously (100%) agreed that University of Buea Library was undoubtedly an automated library. Consequently, 90.2% of the respondents declared that University of Buea Library could boost of having major ICT infrastructure. This was opposed to 9.8% of the students who refused that there were major ICT infrastructures in University of Buea Library. Concerning the use of OpenSource Software in University of Buea Library, only 47.2% of the students agreed to such usage as opposed to 52.8% of the students who rejected such usage.

Cumulatively, 62.6% of students in the Faculty of Health Scienceswerepositive to questionnaire items on emerging trends in University of Buea Library. This was opposed to 37.4% of the said students who were negative to various questionnaire items on emerging trends in the said library. In conclusion therefore, the medical students in the Faculty of Healthy Sciences, University of Buea, concerted that University of Buea Library is at the forefront of emerging transformations in today’s librarianship.

Research Question
What major emerging trends in librarianship does University of Buea Library provide to students in the Faculty of Health Sciences?
Similarly, from statistics in (Table 2), a lot was revealed concerning the kind of major emerging trends in librarianship which University of Buea Library provided to students in the Faculty of Health Sciences. It was revealed that University of Buea Library:
a. Is an automated library
b. Has major ICT infrastructure
c. Has Internet connectivity
However, it was revealed that University of Buea Library:
a. Cannot be accessed remotely
b. Does not provide ICT services to its users
c. Does not use open source software

Research Question
To what extent do students in the Faculty of Health Sciences make use of identified emerging library trends in University of Buea Library when conducting research? Statistics in Table three revealed that all the research students (100%) made use of Internet in the library of University of Buea. Contrarily, 41% of the respondents acknowledged that in University of Buea Library, research students make use of Online Public Access Catalogue, as opposed to 59% of the said students who refuted. Concerning provisions of free online lectures on medical practices to research students in the Faculty of Health Sciences, 47.4% of the students affirmed its possibility, whereas 52.6% refuted such possibility. However, 99.4% of these students were of the opinion that in University of Buea Library, research students made use of MEDLINE, and this was contrary to 0.6% of the said students who were of the opinion thatMEDLINE as a facility never took care of their research need.

In the same way, 48% of these students accepted that University of Buea Library gave out electronic loans to research students in the Faculty of Health Scienceswhile 52% of them declined to this questionnaire item. Lastly, 93.6% of the respondents affirmed that University of Buea Library, ensured that users were drilled on electronic medical information literacy whereas 6.4% of the said respondents had a contrary opinion to this point of view. Summarily, Statistics in (Table 3) revealed that 71.57% of respondents generally showed a high extent of using identified emerging library trends in University of Buea Library when conducting research. This was in contrary to 28.43% of respondents who demonstrated no tendency toward the use of identified emerging library trends in the said library. In all, every respondent agreed to have used the Internet for research purposes. Other areas which the medical students highly deployed for research purposes were revealed to include MEDLINE and electronic medical information literacy. On the other hand, it was ascertained that in University of Buea Library, research students did not make use of OPAC, the said library did not give out electronic loans to research students and there were no provisions made by the library to offer free online lectures on medical practices to research students.

Discussion and Conclusion

Global education cannot be realized anywhere in the world without a central role played by academic or research libraries. It is logical to underscore that research can primarily be looked upon as the fuel for global education. Research, however, does not occur in the air. It is provoked by the presence of nuisance, engaged by an individual [10] and fostered or driven by a well-equipped and functional academic library. This depictionis an illustrated narrative of how an academic library can foster research toward the attainment of global education. Students in the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Buea, are young researchers who are keen on deploying modern services (emerging trends) offered by University of Buea Library so that the education they have on campus should conform to global standards.

Little wonder, Todaro [4] is of the opinion that an academic library ensures global education by supporting and facilitating faculty teaching activities while helping undergraduates to develop adequate research and information literacy skills. An academic library therefore provides active support that helps increase the productivity of faculty research and scholarship [4]. The library pays for resources faculty members need, from academic journals and books to electronic databases and e-resources. In this regards, it fosters research by serving as a repository of resources; in other words, it archives, preserves, and keeps track of resources.

To begin with, University of Buea Library is an automated library having major ICT infrastructure capable of offering Internet connectivity to users. This is why Covi and Cragin [7,8] revealed that in the last couple of years, students and lecturers in Nigerian tertiary institutions have increasingly demanded and preferred access to electronic sources delivery and networked information from their respective libraries. Therefore, any academic library which stands tall amidst provision of services of this nature, affirms the reason why Greenstein (2000) opined that digital libraries have the capability of extending the breadth and scale of scholarly and cultural evidence and supports innovative research and lifelong learning.

University of Buea Library offered Internet facility to its users, provide its users with the medical package called MEDLINE, and drilled its users on electronic medical information literacy. These are functions that are expected of today’s librarianship. Consequently, Etim, Ebong and Gilean [6] opined that “global educational development and academic library research are two inseparable … concepts, both being fundamentally … related … one dies as soon as the other perishes and one survives as long as the other exists.” Although it is ascertained that University of Buea Library provides emerging trends in librarianship, much still need to be desired of services this information platform offers. In this modern dispensation characterized by the advent of the new Information and Communication Technology, it is not too appealing to ascertain that there exists an academic libraryon the surface of the Earth which cannot be accessed remotely by its users, and which does not provide ICT services to its users. As if this is not enough, it is somewhat unpopular to come to term with the fact that there still exists an academic library which counts itself amongst those that do not use Open Source Software. Furthermore, it is awful to state that an academic library in the 21st century is limited by; failure to offer free online lectures to its users, inability to give out electronic loans to its users, and failure to make use of OPAC. On this basis, strong recommendations became inevitable to the proper functioning of University of Buea Library.

Recommendation

Based on the findings of this study the following recommendations were made.
1. The top management of University of Buea amongst whom include the Vice Chancellor, University Librarian, Registrar, Deputy Vice Chancellors and other key stake holders should relentlesslyconsider making frantic efforts toward the digitization of University of Buea Library. In this way, almost all the ICT related problems currently faced by this library will be naturally resolved. If University of Buea Library is digitized, it will automatically be more appealing to its users since it will:
a. Be accessed remotely by its users
b. Provide ICT services to its users
c. Offer free online lectures to its users
d. Be able to give out electronic loans to its users
e. Highly make use of OPAC
f. Highly make use of Open Source Software
2. The university authorities from top to bottom including His Excellency the Minister of State in charge of Higher Education, the Vice Chancellor of University of Buea, the University Librarian and all other related stake holders should consider improving on the budget of University of Buea Library. If this is done, there are high stakes that many more ICT related infrastructural equipment will be acquired for the said library and this will in turn boost a high utilisation of this library whilesoliciting a high student turnout at the library.

Corresponding author

Mbah Relean-Jeans, Email: releanjeans@gmail.com

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Potassium Chloride (KCl) Modulate biochemical Characteristics of Rice (Oryza sativa) under Salt (NaCl) Stress

Potassium Chloride (KCl) Modulate biochemical Characteristics of Rice (Oryza sativa) under Salt (NaCl) Stress by Arshad Ali* in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Abstract

Salinity is a main factor of abiotic stresses to reduced crop production throughout the world. Current study investigates the effect of potassium chloride on biochemical parameter of two rice varieties; Basmati 385 (B-385) and SB (SB) grown under different concentration of sodium chloride (0, 50, 100, and 150mM). Salinity has negatively effect on biochemical characteristics of rice. In addition, photosynthetic pigment (Chl a, Chl b and carotenoids) lowered at different concentration of salt NaCl but significant increase was occurred at increasing concentration of KCl upto 100mM in both varieties. In addition, too, Proline accumulation increased as salinity increased but decreased as the concentration of KCl increased upto 100mM in both varieties. Salinity increased sodium ion concentration followed by decreased in Ca+2 and K+ as in KCl concentration the sodium ions decreased in shoot and root of both varieties. Furthermore, a possible decrease was observed in nitrogen and protein by increasing salinity level as compared to control. Unlikely, protein and nitrogen were increased with KCl concentration. Similarly, micro element (Cu, Fe and Mn) in roots and shoots of both varieties were decreased as level of NaCl increased though increased as the concentration of KCl increased upto 100mM. While zinc concentration increased as concentration of NaCl increased but decreased as KCl concentrations increased. The cadmium, lead and nickle were reduced as salinity increased but increased at 100mM of KCl.

Keywords: A biotic; Potassium Chloride; Sodium Chloride; Salinity; Stresses

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is among the main staple food crop being used worldwide including Asian countries. Among abiotic stresses, salinity is one of the main factors in Asia, particularly in Pakistan that decline both productivity and quality of rice [1,2]. Soil Salinity is a major problem that effect crop productivity in both dry and semi-dry area. There are various types of salts in soils that turn down the productivity of crops, but among them NaCl is the most important one because it’s involved in disruption of plants and form unnecessary complex with other ions present in soil or plant [3]. The osmotic effect, ionic toxicity and ionic imbalance in plant is due to the effect of salt [4,5]. The prevention of plant from the absorption of toxic ions i.e. Na+ and Cl- occur by certain mechanism- together with salt elimination and salt diffusion from leaves to roots [6,7]. It has been predictable that more than half of the yield possible of major crops is generally lost due to unfavorable growth circumstance such as drought or high salinity [3].

Potassium is one of important macronutrient, which playing a vital role in growth and development of plant in the whole life cycle [1]. Potassium is a major component of protein synthesis, enzyme activation, the pH gradient, phloem uploading, turgor pressure regulation, stomatal functioning and the photosynthetic system [8], as well as controlling osmotic pressure and ionic balance during the disclosure of plants to salinity conditions [9]. Exogenous potassium applications, such as potassium chloride (KCl), monopotassium phosphate (KH2PO4), potassium nitrate (KNO3), as well as potassium sulfate (K2SO4) which act as a fertilizers, are well-known for aiding nutrient uptake, water use efficiency, photosynthesis and growth performance in order to reduce salt stress [10-12]. The application of exogenous potassium fertilizers, which alleviates salt damage by enhancing K+ uptake and reducing Na+ uptake, leading to a decrease in the sodium Na+/K+ ratio, has been studies in many crop plants, i.e. pepper [13], sunflowers [11], ryegrass [14], cucumbers [15], strawberries [12] as well as rice [16].

Materials and Methods
Rice Seed collection and Processing

Rice seeds (Oryza sativa L.) of two varieties B-385 and SB were collected from National Agricultural Research Center (NARC) Islamabad, Pakistan. Seeds were surface sterilized through sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) (3.5% (v/v)) for 3 or 4 minutes. Then seeds were rinsed through distilled water.

Hydroponic Cultring

After ten days of germination in controlled condition, the seedling was transferred to plastic pots containing 3 Liters of Hoagland solutions in green house [17]. After 30 days harvested plant sample were oven dry for biochemical analysis such as Elemental analysis (Na+, K+, and Ca++) were analyzed by flame photometer by following [18] method using100ppm standard solution of Na, K, Ca. Micro element (Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn) and heavy metal (Ni, Cd, Pb) were determined by atomic adsorption spectrophotometer (Perkin ELMER, 2380) with air acetylene flame via hollow cathode lamps against the standard. Photosynthetic pigment determination occurs by [19] method. Determined of Proline occur by [20] method with a minor amendment. Total nitrogen and protein content determination occur through micro-Kjeldahl techniques by following [21] method with little bit modifications.

Data analysis

Statistical analyses of data occur by using Ms- Excel (statistic 9.1 versions) Statistic software. Each experiment has a replicate and its means value were compare with SD.

Results

Potassium Chloride (KCl) modulate biochemical characteristics in Salt (NaCl) Stressed Rice (Oryza sativa) Varieties.

Encricment of Photosynethic Pigments

The Chlorophylls and carotenoid contents of both varieties: B-385 and SB showed negative correlation with increasing NaCl concentration. In contrast with increasing NaCl+KCl concentration it showed positive correlation up to certain limit. In addition, the chlorophyll a, b and carotenoid contents at 100mM of NaCl declined by 0.76 mg g-1, 0.39 mg g-1 and 12.40 mg g-1, respectively, over the control. At control, the overall performance of both varieties was good and chlorophyll a, b and carotenoid contents were 0.98 mg g-1, 0.62 mg g-1 and 19.20 mg g-1, respectively, which reduced to 0.76 mg g-1, 0.39 mg g-1 and 12.40 mg g-1 at 100mM of NaCl. In addition, too, the chlorophyll a, b and carotenoid contents at 100mM of NaCl+KCl in B-385 was enhanced i.e. 0.83 mg g-1, 0.50 mg g-1 and 14.60 mg g-1, correspondingly. Similarly, in case of SB the chlorophyll a, b and carotenoid contents at 100mM of NaCl declined by 00.25mg/g, 0.43mg/g and 44.30mg/g, respectively, over the control. However, increased to 0.40mg/g, 0.31mg/g and 58.02mg/g at 100mM of NaCl+KCl as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Coorelation of KCl and NaCl on photosynthetic pigment of rice varieties under Salinity (NaCl) condition.

Table 2: Combined effect of NaCl and KCl on Proline, Protein and Nitrogen contents of rice varieties under salt (NaCl) stress.

Potatium Cholride modulate Proline-amino acid and Total Protein contents in Rice

The amino acid proline accumulation in two varieties of rice; B-385 and SB were markedly increased as NaCl concentration increased, over the control, but the mutual effect of both NaCl+KCl decrease amino acid proline accumulation up to certain extant. The results showed that level of proline amount (0.098 mg g-1) elevated in response to 100mM of NaCl, over the control (0.042mg g-1). However, reduction was observed for B-385 in proline concentration (0.075mg g-1) at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. Similarly, in case of SB proline concentration (0.077mg g-1) is enhanced at 100mM of NaCl, over the control (0.0303mg g-1) but reduced to 0.068mg/g at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. Therefore, increase of proline amount treated with stress could be attributed to enhance proline amount, but potassium reduced sodium stress mention as Table 2.

In shoot and root of both varieties; B-385 and SB, nitrogen and protein contents were decreased as the NaCl concentration increased, while increased as concentration of NaCl+KCl increasing upto 100mM. The results showed that a possible reduction was observed in shoot of B-385 and (0.0030g and 0.0200g) at 100mM of NaCl concentration, over control (0.0037g and 0.0313g) as increased to 0.0036g and 0.0261g at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. Likewise shoots, a possible reduction was observed in roots (0.0057g and 0.0344 g) at 100mM of NaCl concentration, over control (0.0076g and 0.0452g) whereas increased to 0.0054g and 0.0322g at 100mM of NaCl+KCl.

Data regarding SB shoots showed that plants treated with 100mM of NaCl concentration recorded minimum nitrogen and protein content (0.0069g and 0.0411g) as compared to control (.0077g and 0.0467g) whilst increased to 0.0106g and 0.0458g at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. Likewise shoots, roots of plants treated with 100mM of NaCl concentration recorded minimum nitrogen and protein content (0.0096g and 0.0575g) as compared to control (0.0128g and0.0763g) whilst increased to 0.0107g and 0.0638g at 100mM of NaCl+KCl shown as Table 2.

Figure 1: Effect of NaCl+KCl on Calcium, Sodiun and Potassium ions in shoots (A) and roots (B) of B-385 under various concentration of NaCl.

Figure 2: Effect of NaCl+KCl on Calcium, Sodium and Potassium ions in shoots (A) and roots (B) of SB under various concentration of NaCl

Antagonistic profiling of Cellular Electrolytes (Na+, K+ and Ca2+) during Salt stress

Significant variations were notified in electrolytes (Na+, K+ and Ca2+) content in two varieties of rice i.e. B-385 and SB at different concentrations of NaCl. In present study, Na+ significantly increased and K+ and Ca2+ decrease with increasing NaCl in saline medium. While k+ and Ca2+ increased and a decline was observed for Na+ content with increasing NaCl+KCl. In shoot maximum K+, Ca2+ and Na+ contents were recorded for control (118 ppm, 66.66 ppm, and 57.33 ppm) as minimum were observed for 100 mM of NaCl concentration (92.83ppm, 56ppm and 82.33ppm), respectively. As at 100mM of NaCl+KCl values were 135ppm, 59.33ppm and 64ppm for Basmati-385. Data regarding roots of B-385 showed that highest values were recorded for control (49.33ppm, 62ppm and 27.66ppm) as lowest were observed for 100mM of NaCl concentration (41.66ppm, 52ppm and 50.66ppm). At 100mM of NaCl+KCl were 57.66ppm, 57ppm and 51ppm, respectively in Figure 1.

In shoot of SB K+, Ca2+ and Na+ contents at control were (86.66ppm, 65ppm and 34ppm) as at 100mM of NaCl concentration were (73.33ppm, 57ppm and 44.66ppm). But at 100mM of NaCl+KCl observed values were (57.66ppm 45.33ppm and 62ppm). While in roots K+, Ca2+ and Na+ contents at control were 60.66ppm, 64.66ppm and 33.66ppm, while at 100mM of NaCl concentration 44.33ppm, 56.66ppm and 65.33ppm, But at 100mM of NaCl+KCl 60.33ppm, 60ppm and 44.66ppm Figure 2.

Mudulation of Macro and Micro Elements

In Shoot and root of both varieties of rice; B-385 and SB Zinc concentration showed positive correlation with increasing NaCl concentration. But showed negative correlation with increasing of NaCl+KCl upto 100mM. In shoot and root of B-385 at control the zinc concentration was 1.57ppm, and 3.49ppm which elevated to 3.13ppm and 5.27ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but reduced to 2.17ppm and 4.08ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. In shoot and roots of SB at control zinc concentration was 0.171ppm and 2.64ppm which enhanced to 1.32ppm and 3.49ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but reduced to 1.11ppm and 3.10ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl.

In shoot of B-385 at control the Copper, Iron and Manganese concentration was 0.098ppm,1.67ppm and 2.22ppm which reduced to 0.07ppm, 1.06ppm and 1.106ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but enhance to 0.91ppm, 1.15ppm and 1.85ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. While in root at control the Copper, Iron and Manganese concentration was 0.21ppm, 1.26ppm and 1.90ppm which reduced to 0.11ppm, 0.73ppm and 1.02ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but increased to 0.26ppm, 1.15ppm and 1.35ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl.

In Shoot of SB at control Copper, Iron and Manganese concentration was 0.17ppm, 2.25ppm and 2.20ppm which reduced to 0.12ppm, 1.02ppm and 1.20ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but increased to 0.18ppm, 1.26ppm and 2.53ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. While in root at control Copper, Iron and Manganese concentration was 0.31ppm, 2.27ppm and 1.13ppm which reduced to 0.16ppm, 1.42ppm and 0.48ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but increased to 0.25ppm, 1.47ppm and 1.55ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl.

Cadmium, Lead and Nickle concentration in shoot and root of both varieties; B-385 and SB were significantly reduced by increasing NaCl concentration and show negative correlation with sodium chloride. While in case of NaCl+KCl concentration cadmium, lead and nickle concentration increased Figures 3 & 4. In shoot of B-385, at control the cadmium, lead and Nickle concentration were 0.23ppm, 0.70ppm and 0.716ppm which reduced to 0.018ppm, 0.44ppm and 0.484ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but 0.035ppm, 0.513ppm and 0.665ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. While in case of root at control the cadmium, lead and Nickle concentration were 0.09ppm, 0.83ppm and 2.7ppm which reduced to 0.034ppm, 0.06ppm and 1.20ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but 0.028ppm, 0.068ppm and 1.320ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl.

In shoot of SB cadmium, lead and Nicle concentration were 0.054ppm, 1.30ppm and 1.39ppm at control and 0.021ppm, 0.78ppm and 0.739ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but 0.048ppm, 0.91ppm and 0.784ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl. While in case of root cadmium, lead and Nickle concentration were 0.053ppm, 0.034ppm and 1.953ppm at control and 0.031ppm, 0.35ppm and 0.846ppm at 100mM of NaCl, but 0.043ppm, 0.37ppm and 0.85ppm at 100mM of NaCl+KCl.

Figure 3: Effect of NaCl+KCL on Copper, Zinc, Iron, manganese, Nickel, Lead, and Cadmium ions in a shoot (A) and root (B) of B-385 under various concentration of NaCl

Figure 4: Effect of NaCl+KCL on Copper, Zinc, Iron, manganese, Nickel, Lead, and Cadmium ions in a shoot (A) and root (B) of SB under various concentration of NaCl.

Discussion

Photosynthetic pigments which may be chlorophyll (a, b) & carotenoid were declined with higher salinity NaCl but NaCl+KCl concentration increased both chlorophyll (a, b) as well as carotenoid (Table 2). So it may be due to reason that Potassium chloride might have some role with enzyme pool responsible for the process of photosynthesis which gives the plant strength to overcome the stress. [22] investigated that higher salinity suppressed enzymes which are mainly involve in chlorophyll synthesis and due to this the chlorophyll content reduced. Salinity stress mainly involve in the disruption of chloroplast as well as instability of pigment protein complex. But the chlorophyll contents reduced at higher concentration of NaCl salinities [23]. These results were closely related to observation of  that salt stress has negative effect on growth as well as on photosynthetic pigment of bean plants. The chlorophyll synthesis in the leaves of E. agallocha was increased by NaCl+KCl salinities.

Proline act as one of the defense mechanisms in plant to reduced salt stress. Shamseddin-saeid and Farahbakhsh, studies that in respect to salinity or various other kind of abiotic stresses proline accumulation occurs in plant leaves. Highly level of NaCl concentration in the medium increased proline accumulation in respect to control, but decreased as concentration of NaCl+KCl stress increased. So it might be a consequence of injury rather than being involved in the stress tolerance. Additional role of osmo-protectant, plant hormones provided through seeds or other way is a basic and alternate way to declined salinity stress [24]. The present studies investigate that the proline accumulation provides stability to plant under abiotic stresses [23]. According to Ueda [25] insertion of proline rich protein occurs under higher salinity stress. Our observation was closely related to the work of Shamseddin-saeid and Farahbakhsh [26].

The absorption of k+ ion in plant was suppressed by Na+ ion during salt stress was studied by [27,28]. While providing KCl to a plant lead to enhance K+ concentration in the roots and shoots more than normal condition [29]. But in our experiment the Ca+2 and K+ ions were reduced by higher salinity NaCl but increased by increasing NaCl+KCl stress up to moderate concentration (Figures 2 & 3). Due to the reason that observed increased was due to adding of KCl to root environment and potassium has negative correlation with sodium ions which has crucial processes of plant cells under salinity stresses. For osmotic adjustment of plant potassium ion is one of the most important and approximately 50 cytosolic enzymes have been activated by K+ ion [28]. Our Result was closely related to the result of. The result of [30] indicated that Ca2+ concentration in plant cell is one of potential marker for tolerance of salt in plant. They said that salt susceptible plants have reduced its ability to accumulate Ca2+ ions under high salinity stress. Applying KCl to root environment caused to decline accumulation of Na+ in plant which may led to enhance dry weight. Hence proved that there was a inversely relationship between Na+ and Ca2+. But the result of our experiment also supported the result of [30]. It might due the fact that Ca2+ ion act as an important messenger in signaling pathway, and correlated with K+ ion which act as chemical fertilizer. The reduction of Ca2+ content was due to increasing Na+ content in root environment in salt salinity plants.

Jamil [31] observed that high level of salt in soil has negative effect on protein contents of plants, but NaCl+KCl reduced these negative effects produced by salinity and enhanced total protein as well as nitrogen contents. This may be due to the fact that salt stress increases protein synthesis in cereals and facilitate the transfer of nitrogen into protein. In our results total nitrogen and protein content in rice plant decreased with increasing salinity NaCl but increasing of NaCl+KCl concentration would increase total nitrogen and protein. Potassium is a major component of protein synthesis, enzyme activation, the pH gradient, phloem uploading, turgor pressure regulation, stomata functioning, and the photosynthetic system, as well as controlling osmotic pressure and ionic balance during the exposure of plants to salt stress conditions. Our study is correlated with result of.

The concentration of Zn, Fe were significantly reduced in root, stem and leaf, Mn in stem and root in response to water deficient and salinity. The concentration of cu significantly decreased in leaf with higher salinity. Moreover, a negative relationship was obtained between salinity and concentration for Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn in leaf [32]. In our results the Cu, Fe and Mn were decreased as salinity NaCl increased. But increased with increasing of NaCl+KCl concentration (Figures 4 & 5), which correlated with result of [32]. While the Zn concentration increased with higher salinity NaCl but reduce as concentration of NaCl+KCl stress increased (Figures 4 & 5). Cadmium and lead contents decline in leaves of the plant in response to increasing soil salinity, because sodium ion concentration increased which may disturb the aborption of cadmium and lead. Other work also indicates that increased level of salinity cause a reduction in the concentration of elements absorbed by the plants [33]. In our studies cadmium and lead contents reduced with increasing NaCl concentration but increased with increasing NaCl+KCl concentration (Figuress 4 & 5). Our finding is strongly supported with the work of [34- 36]. NaCl+KCl stress reduced the salinity stress (NaCl) in response of heavy metals absorption it shows us that NaCl+KCl play a crucial role in reducing the absorption of toxic elements like Na which assist the plant in the absorption of other essential compounds.

Conclusion

It was concluded that potassium alleviate sodium stress in biochemical parameter of rice including photosynthetic pigments, elemental uptake (K+, Ca+2, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Cd), nitrogen and protein content and decline proline accumulation and (Na+,Zn) in B-385 and SB. However, potassium chloride showed antagonistic relationship with NaCl concentration.

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Latent Crohn’s Disease Uncovered During Treatment with Secukinumab in a Patient with Ankylosing Spondilitis

Latent Crohn’s Disease Uncovered During Treatment with Secukinumab in a Patient with Ankylosing Spondilitis by Moșteanu Elena Ofelia* in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Keywords: Crohn’s disease, IL-17A Inhibitors, Secukinumab

Introduction 

The inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are defined as a group of heterogeneous disorders with multifactorial etiology, in which a chronic inflammation of the digestive tract is caused by disturbances in the immune response to the pathogenic low-diversity gut microbiota [1]. IBD includes two major entities: Crohn’s disease (CD) and Ulcerative Colitis (UC). Current data estimates an impressive prevalence of over 0.3% globally [2]. CD is defined as transmural inflammation of any part of the gastrointestinal tract (GTI), from mouth to the perianal area, with a mainly ileal localization, while UC is an autolimited disease, of localization and histology, affecting only the colorectal mucosa. The clinical presentation of CD typically includes non-specific symptoms as abdominal pain, diarrhea, low-grade fever and weightloss, and with a low prevalence, extraintestinal manifestations. Complications of the disease include stricturing with secondary bowel obstruction, penetrating fistulas or abcesses.

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a disease of spondyloarthropathies’ (SpA) class, which includes arthritis of different etiology. AS is a chronic inflammatory rheumatic disease involving primarily the axial skeleton, clinically expressed by back pain. It’s progressive character leads to continuosly increasing stiffnes of the spine, leading to spine fusion in late stages. In the light of epidemiologic studies of SpA associated with IBD, it was found an association of these pathologies in a third of the patients [3,4]. The overexpression and the complex immunoregulation of IL-17/IL-23 axis is of main importance in the interconnection of these entities [5]. Secukinumab is a human monoclonal antibody, a IL-17A inhibitor that was approved on the market in 2015, 20 years after Th-17, and consequently IL-17, was discovered. The novelty of the current case report is the long-term follow-up of a patient with new-onset of CD during treatment with Secukinumab, describing the resolution of the newly-emerged disease.

Case Report

We present the case of a 40 years old male, smoker, diagnosed with AS in 2006, for which he was treated with sulphasalazine for 4 years, etoricoxib for the next 2 years and etanercept (a TNFα inhibitor) for 7 years, until 2019, when the treatment with Secukinumab started. In 2016, he started having brief episodes of mesogastric abdominal pain, nausea, diarheea, episodes that didn’t remit with any medication, but did spontaneuosly after aproximately 24 hours. Because of the short duration and the low frequency, one episode every 6 months, the patient was not referred. After only 2 weeks of treatment with Secukinumab, in February 2019, these episodes worsened and became more frequent, almost weekly at the moment of the first gastrointestinal assessment in April. The abdominal ultrasound and the colonoscopy didn’t reveal any pathologic modifications. The symptoms were to be controlled by diet. In November, the patient was admitted again as the symptomatology worsened. Physical evaluation revealed pain at the abdomnial palpation in the right flank. Paraclinical examination show only an elevated C-reactive Protein of 2.88 mg/dl. Stool examination excluded any gastrointestinal infection. Abdominal ultrasound was nomal. A colonoscopy was performed and revealed cecal pseudopolyps, but the terminal ileon could not be inspected. The MRI Enterography revealed an ileal inflammatory stenosis, right next to the ileocecal valve, explaining the impossibility of ileocecal valve intubation (Figures 1&2).

Figure 1&2:  Inflammatory ileocecal stenosis.

Figure 3: Upstream dilatation of the bowel.

The diagnosis was of ileocecal CD due to the inflammatory stenosis with subsequent upstream bowel dilatation (Figure 3). Secukinumab administration was discontinued and treatment with Adalimumab was indicated. At 3-months follow-up, the patient’s gastrointestinal symptomatology completely remmited, the remission being controlled by maintaining the treatment with Adalimumab, daily administration of inulin and simeticone and diet.

Discussion

It is widely known that there is a close association between IBD and SpA in terms of genetics, microbiota and immunology discorders [3,4]. In the etiopatogenesis of IBD, CD4 Th cells play a major role by starting and maintaining the autoimmune inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, by producing pro-inflammatory cytokines. Beside CD4 Th cells, another subset of Th cells, Th17 cells, are overexpressed at this level and are positively regulated by IL-23, another proinflammatory cytokine produced by antigen-presenting cells, after the contact with the compounds of the pathological microbiota [6]. The activation of IL-17/IL-23 axis is fundamentally connected to the etiology of both CD and AS, IL-17 being found extensively in the blood, the synovial fluid in AS and in the intestinal lamina propria of CD patients [7,8].

Human interleukin IL-17 was found to be involved in different autoimmune diseases, such as systemic sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, asthma, SpAs and IBD [9-14]. While IL-17 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine, current data suggests a protective role on the gastrointestinal tract in IBD patients [15]. The importance of this paradox is to be seen in patients that benefit of biological treatment with IL-17 inhibitors and might associate a latent IBD.

Studies conducted with the objective of administering Secukinumab on CD animal models studies (2 ref trial) and on one human trial, which had to be completed prematurely because of the diseases’ unfavorable evolution compared to placebo, enforcing so the theory of IL-17 as being, in an unknown manner, a protective factor in the natural inflammatory evolution of CD. It is suggested that this difference may be due to the pathological microbiota found in IBD [16-18]. Using the data of these trials and knowing the statistical association between CD and SpA, the IL-17 molecule being overexpressed and playing different roles in both diseases, it might come handy that by inhibiting the IL-17/IL-23 path in SpA, the inflammation of the gut might worsen.

In Secukinumab’s summary of product characteristics, IBDs are mentioned in the section of special warnings and precautions for use, warning that the patients should be closely monitored. The latest retrospective analysis of pooled data from 21 clinical trials, containing 7355 patients, concluded that the cases of IBD during treatment with Secukinumab were uncommon [19]. The reported incidence of CD among 794 patients treated for SpA was 0,1 per 100 patients/year, with 5 new onset cases of CD (0,63%) and an exacerbation found in 3 out of 5 patients with a history of CD. The question this case raised was whether our patient was having a silent CD that was activated by this treatment or he developed the disease on a normal gastrointestinal tract. Anamnestically, the patient did associate in time the onset of gastrointestinal manifestations with the use of Secukinumab.

Diarrhea is a common side effect of this treatment and the patients should be informed of the possibility of having an inactive IBD that might activate during this treatment and they should be advised to adress a specialist if the gastrointestinal symptoms persist. IL-17 positive cells are not detected in the mucosa of healthy individuals, infectious colitis or ischaemic colitis patients, but IL-17 levels are significantly elevated in active and even in inactive CD [20]. Therefore, we can’t state that a subclinical CD was not present, taking into consideration also the frequency of IBD and SpA associating. Using the patient’s history and the current data available in the literature, we strongly believe that Secukinumab was the trigger of CD in this case.

Currently there are treatment guidelines just for IBD and SpA individually, but not any for both IBD and SpA, which would be needed in the near future, as more specific biological therapies emerge, targeting different inflammatory pathways. As written in the summary of product characteristics of Secukinumab, a close follow-up for IBD patients is needed, but, even if the new onset of CD is reported to have a low incidence, a gastroenterological monitoring would be recommended even for healthy individuals, because of the reported prevalence of IBD and SpA association.

Conclusion

A gastroenterological consult before the initiation of the treatment would be beneficial, since SpA may precede the onset of IBD [21,22] or may associate with an underlying asymptomatic intestinal inflammation [23]. This case report is also enforcing the current data of IL-17 having a protective role in IBD, it’s path inhibition leading to exacerbation or to activation of a silent IBD. Of biological therapies, there are safer treatment schemes for a patient with AS and symptomatic or silent CD, which could include Ustekinumab, a human monoclonal antibody that is targeting the IL-12/IL-23 path, Infliximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody that inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) or Adalimumab, the first human monoclonal antibody that bind and neutralizez TNFα. The statistics and this case report are underlining the importance of a multi-disciplinary approach when prescribing biological therapy, including rheumatologists and gastroenterologists. Why the IL-17/IL-23 axis is having a „paradoxal” role on the gastrointestinal tract it still a question that’s laking an answer and represents a future research direction.

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